Émigré Soldiers at the battle at Quiberon (1795) . Left to right 1st Division 1) Régiment du Dresnay ou de Léon. 2) Loyal
Emigrant. 3) Régiment d'Hervilly. 4) Royal Artillerie. 5) Régiment d'Hector ou
Marine-Royale.
Left to right 2nd
Division 1) Légion du Périgord.
2) Légion de Béon.
3) Régiment de Damas.
4) Régiment de Rohan.
5) Légion de Salm-Kiburg.
2) Légion de Béon.
3) Régiment de Damas.
4) Régiment de Rohan.
5) Légion de Salm-Kiburg.
Thousands of people from all socioeconomic backgrounds left
France during the era of instability that followed the fall of the Bastille in
1789. However, contemporaries and historians alike typically reserve the term
“émigré” to describe those members of the nobility and elite classes who
departed and settled in cities such as London, Hamburg, Vienna, and Coblenz.
Revolutionaries had grounds to worry that exiles such as the Prince de Condé
and the comte d’Artois (the future Charles X) would prompt European aristocrats
and monarchs to take the field as a counterrevolutionary force. Demonized as
traitors by the revolutionaries, the émigrés typically considered themselves
more truly French and more genuinely patriotic than the revolutionaries themselves.
At least 150,000 nobles, clergymen, and commoners had
emigrated from France by 1793. Approximately 30,000 people had left the country
because of the French Revolution by early 1792. This exodus prompted the fear
that counterrevolution was brewing along France’s borders and thus provoked a
declaration of war from the French government. The war and the Reign of Terror
encouraged many who had been hesitating or who had believed that the Revolution
would be of short duration to leave. Although attention has focused on the first
category of émigré, nobles comprised only about 17 percent of the total; among
the nobility, 35 percent had served as officers in the French army. The clergy
represented a further 25 percent of the émigrés, and the vast majority of those
served as parish priests and in other positions low in the church hierarchy.
Hence, over half of the émigrés were from the middle class, working class, or
peasantry. Their experiences as émigrés would have been comparable to those of
refugees in subsequent conflicts, as they typically lacked resources, personal
connections, or warm receptions in their new countries. Even members of the
nobility often found themselves impoverished after a few years in exile, and
few intended to make their stays abroad permanent.
Following the fall of the Bastille, Louis XVI ordered his
brothers into exile so that they could represent the monarchy at foreign courts
and preserve the dynastic line in case of regicide. After a period in Italy and
then Belgium, the comte d’Artois established a court in exile at Coblenz in
imitation of Versailles. He also attempted to construct a counterrevolutionary
army comprised of erstwhile members of the French army who had gone into exile
because of their noble birth or political convictions. His supporters attempted
to prepare cooperative actions with counterrevolutionaries within France,
especially with the Chouans, and with those in the Vendée, Lyon, and Toulon.
The soldiers fought courageously and, they believed, patriotically under the
leadership of French officers or those from Britain, Prussia, Austria, and
Russia.
Meanwhile, the Prince de Condé organized his own émigré army
based in Worms. The Austrian and Prussian governments worried about the émigrés
within their borders and the extent to which they would be implicated by their
actions. After ignoring Condé’s army, they then placed it under the control of
an Austrian general in 1793. The army spent several years posted along the
Rhine River then passed under the successive control and financing of the
British, Austrians, and Russians. The army was dissolved in 1801, at which time
the Prince de Condé settled in London with his son, who had in turn organized
an army and engaged in failed military operations, such as that of 1795 in the
Vendée.
Louis Auguste le Tonnelier, the Baron de Breteuil, became
prime minister in exile. After his departure from Paris, he briefly stayed at a
spa town in Germany before settling in Switzerland, whence he negotiated with
European monarchs to obtain their financial and military backing for a
counterrevolution. Louis XVI’s brothers both intensely disliked him, yet he
enjoyed the support of the queen, and he organized the monarchs’ failed escape
from Paris in 1791.
The vast majority of émigrés never participated in military
campaigns or lobbied foreign monarchs. Most simply attempted to reestablish
their lives abroad, hoping to return home as soon as possible. Emigrés tended
to concentrate in a few neighborhoods in a select number of European cities,
such as Hamburg, Coblenz, Aix-la- Chapelle, and London. Hamburg lay between
Russia and Britain; it also possessed urban attractions and an urbane culture
that attracted 40,000 émigrés. London became home to about 25,000 émigrés.
Provincial nobles from Brittany, Poitou, and Anjou congregated in the West End,
where they attempted to re-create a semblance of the social life they had
known. Salons sprung up almost as soon as an émigré community formed. Madame de
Genlis in Hamburg and Madame de Polastron in London supervised such gatherings,
at which fellow exiles could exchange news, participate in intellectual life,
and form or reform friendships. As time passed and financial resources
dwindled, the émigrés relied upon each other even more.
Journalism became an important means of establishing
community and reaffirming an émigré’s sense of French identity. Jean-Gabriel
Peltier, the abbé de Calonne, Jacques Regnier, and several other editors
published newspapers for the émigrés in London. The editorials stressed the
patriotism and loyalty of the exiles. They also derided French cultural
activity during the years of the Revolution and idealized a vague moment when
French life had been characterized by good etiquette, gentility, honor, and
general benevolence. The newspaper publishers also enabled fellow émigrés to
obtain jobs and make connections. In the most notable case, the impoverished
émigré François-René de Chateaubriand met his first publisher, obtained work as
a translator and as a tutor, and secured sustenance from the Royal Literary
Fund because of Peltier’s efforts.
The vast majority of émigrés returned to France during the
Restoration. Napoleon offered a partial amnesty in October 1800, but very few
royalists followed the example of the Baron de Breteuil by accepting. All but
1,000 émigrés were allowed to return by April 1802. Those who had lost property
during the Revolution and returned to France received compensation, totaling 1
billion francs, from Louis XVIII.
FURTHER READING: Burrows, Simon F. French Exile Journalism
and European Politics, 1792 – 1814. London: Boydell and Brewer, 2000;
Carpenter, Kirsty. Refugees of the French Revolution: Émigrés in London, 1789
–1802. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999; Carpenter, Kirsty, and Philip Mansel,
eds. The French Émigrés in Europe and the Struggle against Revolution. New
York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999; Kale, Steven D. French Salons: High Society and
Political Sociability from the Old Regime to the Revolution of 1848. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Press, 2004.
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